Ancient Greek Doctors Essay -- essays research papers

Hippocrates and Galen Comparative study between the best Greek Medical doctors of ancient Times. Introduction As The Greek empire declined, Rome inherited its medical traditions and knowledge. During the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D health standards dropped considerably and outbreaks occurred of life threatening diseases. Galen of Pergamon, a follower of Hippocrates, gathered much of the medical knowledge of the time and added to it his studies of anatomy and physiology (mostly of animals). In Spite of his errors in describing certain anatomical and physiology phenomena, his writing created the foundation for medicine over 1500 years later in Europe. Though Galen created a historical event, he indeed followed and admired one of the greatest doctors of ancient Greece ‘Hippocrates’. A physician and a surgeon he became a leader of a medical school on the ‘Aegean island of Cos’ his works are contained in the ‘Hippocrates corpus’, over 70 volumes of case histories and thoughts on the practice of medicine, role of environmental health and sa cred diseases. Although other non-Hippocrates doctors made diagnosis, the Cos physicians would try and predict the outcome of their patients. Hippocrates adopted a view that Breath is the most necessary component of our bodies and if it flowed freely produces heath if impeded produces disease. Hippocrates says that diseases are caused by the differences in the elemental components of the human organism. Before Hippocrates and Galen Medical practice in Greece centered around religion (Cult), the cult of Askelepios, the Greek god of medicine and the son of Apollo. Mythology tells us that Askelepios was saving so many lives that Pluto, the god of the underworld, asked Zeus to slay him which Zeus did with a thunderbolt. Whether Askelepios was a real man or not ,many temples around Greece have been placed up in his honor. Patients go to theses temples where they spend the night and patients have said that Askelepios has appeared in their dreams. In an age where disease was looked upon as a punishment from the gods, sacrifice was a way of pleasing the gods to prevent them from punishing. This was not the only medicine practice in Greece, there where also men who where more truly doctors they practice the unknown medicine and where still well regarded. Hippocrates What... ... his work nearly all medical thought and shaped not only the theory but practice as well. Galen’s training was not only in biology and medicine, but known as a philosopher and philologist. Philosophy in Galens word is " an essential part of training a doctor". Galens first professional job was a surgeon to the gladiators in Pergamon, here he gained much experience and practical knowledge from the wounds he had to treat. After four years he immigrated to Rome where he attained a brilliant reputation as a practitioner and a public demonstrated of anatomy. Galen for all his mistakes, remained the unchallenged authority for over a thousand years. Main mistakes consisted of the internal organs e.g.: he incorrectly assumed that the rete mirablile, a plexus of blood vessels as the base of the brain of ungulate animals, was also present in humans. He had 20 scribes to write down all his words and dictums, he was not Christian yet his writings reflected only one God an d declared the body to be an instrument of the soul. Galen experimented on animals for physiological purposes. The work On the use of the parts of the human body consisted of seventeen books of this topic.

Black Leaders Essay

Booker T. Washington and William Edward Burghardt Du Bois were influential black leaders. Their leadership strengthened the minds of the black race. During the decades of Reconstruction following the Civil War, African Americans struggled to be assimilated into the new American society. To do this African Americans required social and economic equality. Two great Negro leaders that emerged for this cause were Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois. With these two strong-headed men, another problem arose. They both sharply disagreed upon the strategies needed to gain these equalities. Washington preferred a gradual, submissive, and economically based plan. On the other hand, Du Bois relied upon a more agitating and politically aggressive plan. They worked for the advancement of African-Americans in American society, but their methods of achieving this goal and their leadership style differed greatly from one another. It is hard to fathom that two men, who helped to strive for the great goal of racial fairness, could have been such opposites, but it is true. Booker T. Washington, a former slave and the founder of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, believed that African Americans needed to accept segregation and discrimination for the time being and concentrate on elevating themselves through hard work and material prosperity. The eventual acquisition of wealth and culture by African Americans would gradually win for them the respect and acceptance of the white community. This would break down the divisions between the two races and lead to equal citizenship for African Americans in the end. Also he urged blacks to accept discrimination for the time being and concentrate on elevating themselves through hard work and material prosperity. He believed in education in the crafts, industrial and farming skills and the cultivation of the virtues of patience, enterprise and thrift. This, he said, would win the respect of whites and lead to African Americans being fully accepted as citizens and included into all strata of society. Washington wanted blacks in the south to respect and value the need for industrial education both from a vantage of American and African experience. Booker T. Washington was born a slave on April 5, 1856 in Franklin County, Virginia. Once the slaves were emancipated, his family moved to West Virginia. There, his family was poor, and he had to work in a salt furnace and then a coal mine. In school he named himself Booker Washington. Only later did he find out his name was Booker Taliaferro. So he combined both names to form his now famous name, Booker T. Washington. He went to school at the Hampton Institute, which was an industrial school for blacks. Later on, he based his educational theories on his time at Hampton. He founded the Tuskegee Institute, which was a Negro school, which eventually became known for its hardworking, reliable graduates. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born into an affluent family on February 23, 1868 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Bois took college preparatory classes while in high school. He was also a column writer of a newspaper, the New York Globe. While still young he attended town meetings to listen to people discuss concerns of the town. He spoke about Wendell Phillips at his high school graduation. Du Bois’s mother unexpectedly died in 1884. After high school, he attended Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. He was the first black person to obtain a Ph. D. from Harvard. He taught at Atlanta University. At Fisk he took part in public speaking and debates. He edited the Fisk Herald, the school’s paper. At Fisk he realized that his goal was not for his own happiness, but for the advancement of the black race. He graduated from Fisk in 1886 with an A. B. degree. After Fisk he was accepted into Harvard. In 1895 Du Bois became the first African American to get a Ph. D. from Harvard. Even with a Ph. D. from Harvard he did not feel he was ready to deal with the problems that African Americans faced. He then spent two years at Berlin University. This gave him an extended outlook on the race problem. In the south, African Americans received segregated and unequal education established by white Americans. Du Bois was confident that he could get white Americans to give up discrimination. Du Bois was motivated to lead African Americans out of the disadvantaged position they seemed to be in. He believed the key to their advancement was in education. Near the end of the 1800’s African Americans occupied unskilled jobs in southern cities. Their economic situation was not good. Du Bois felt compelled to work to improve this situation. He initially wanted to dedicate his life to education. In 1909 he contributed to the development of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). According to Gerald Hynes, Du Bois was not pleased with the group, due in part by it being under the leadership of whites. He agreed to work with them and became the editor of â€Å"The Crisis† (1909-1934), a publication from the NAACP. He also led the Niagara Movement. The Niagara Movement was an organization founded by black Americans to racial discrimination. The movement placed most of the blame for America’s racial problems on whites. It opposed the view of Booker T. Washington. He later became a Marxist and a Communist. Washington and Du Bois were alike in few ways. They were both black leaders. They were both teachers and authors. They were also both subject to discrimination from whites. They were both spokesmen for their separate ideologies. Du Bois and Washington were polar opposites of each other in every aspect except for the reasons previously stated. They were so much so that Du Bois published a book named The Souls of Black Folk, which contained many essays criticizing Washington’s views. Du Bois went on to write many other essays and speeches opposing the viewpoints of supposed â€Å"Uncle Tom’s. † The author believes that Booker T. Washington developed a leadership style based on the model of the old plantation house servant. He used humility, politeness, flattery, and restraint as a wedge with which he hoped to split the wall of racial discrimination. His conciliatory approach won the enthusiastic support of the solid South as well as that of influential Northern politicians and industrialists; their backing gained him a national reputation and provided him with easy access to the press. Members of his own community were filled with pride to see one of their own treated with such respect by wealthy and influential leaders of white America. Du Bois assigned Washington of giving the black race the â€Å"distinct status of civil inferiority. † Washington was for surrendering basic human rights and dignity for economic advancement. Du Bois thought that was detrimental to the black race. Washington thought that a vocational education was far more important to blacks than higher education. Du Bois thought that the really important things in life laid in the realm of the mind. The term â€Å"The Talented Tenth† was the trademark of his educational philosophy. To him, this was, â€Å"The Talented Tenth of the Negro race must be made leaders of thought and missionaries of culture among their people. No others can do this work and Negro colleges must train men for it. The Negro race, like all other races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. † In the author’s opinion, there’s any question that Booker T. Washington did accept segregation. Booker T. Washington was an accommodationist. And his program was to accommodate the social and political situation of the South. â€Å"Du Bois was not in complete disagreement with Booker T. Washington. Du Bois referred to Booker T. Washington as the greatest black leader since Frederick Douglass. And also referred to Washington as the most distinguished man, black or white, to come out of the South since the Civil War. So it wasn’t as though Du Bois disagreed with Washington’s program, but Du Bois felt that there was room for more than one solution to the problem. And just as Washington advocated vocational education for the majority of African Americans in the South, Du Bois felt yes, there were African Americans in the South, perhaps the majority who at that point in their historical development were better off with vocational education. But there were others among the race who needed to be the individuals who were at the top, the individuals who did the training, the individuals who were the intelligentsia. And that you needed this group of people. And I think that was the basis of their disagreement. Not that Du Bois felt that Washington was completely wrong, but that Washington needed to have more than just one way of approaching the problem. And then of course the other issue on which they disagreed was Du Bois did not feel that you could accommodate injustice. And he felt that Washington was placing upon his shoulders an extremely heavy responsibility by advocating that African Americans accommodate the social and political system in the South. Washington stated that blacks should work hard and become economically prosperous before they should ask for racial equality from the whites. Du Bois thought that this was absolutely preposterous. Blacks shouldn’t have to ask for equality from whites, it is God’s gift to them and every human being deserved it. Du Bois believed that the whites were responsible for keeping the black men down and that the black man should cry out and declare his independence. Washington wanted to please the whites, because he thought that was the only way anything good could happen. Even when he was a child, he made his name Washington, whom was a well-known white historical figure of prominence. Du Bois was more radical, whereas Washington was very moderate. Washington was a realist, Du Bois was a romantic. Du Bois wanted to stir men’s hearts, Washington wanted to stir men’s minds. Washington was loyal to his country, Du Bois was loyal to his race. Washington was possessed humility, and could relate to the common man, Du Bois was arrogant, egotistical, and imperious. Since he could not believe that the average Southern white man had any desire to help the Negro, Du Bois could see no future in the South for the ambitious young people of his race. Directly contradicting Washington’s counsel, Du Bois urged them to go North for freedom and advancement. He encouraged urban migration at every turn, believing that the â€Å"country represented oppression and serfdom,† while the â€Å"city represented opportunity. † It is very clear to see that their experiences were different and this is very important in understanding how they saw the future of the race. But it’s also important to keep in mind that for both of them, race uplift was the central key. Despite all of Du Bois attacks on him, Washington still managed to be more popular at the time, and more famous today.

Pope Gregory VI - The Pope Who Bought the Papacy

Pope Gregory VI was also known as: Giovanni Graziano (his birth name); also John of Gratian (the Anglicized version.) Pope Gregory VI was known for: Buying the papacy. Giovanni paid his predecessor, Pope Benedict IX, what is sometimes considered a pension; when Benedict left, Giovanni was recognized as Pope Gregory VI by the cardinals. Gregory is also known for being one of the few popes in history to resign. Occupations: Pope Places of Residence and Influence: Italy Important Dates: Begins papacy: May, 1045Resigned: Dec. 20, 1046Died: At an unknown date in 1047 or 1048 About Pope Gregory VI: When Giovanni Graziano paid his godson a pension to convince him to resign, most scholars agree he did so out of an honest desire to rid the papacy of the dissolute Pope Benedict IX. Unfortunately, as Pope Gregory VI, he achieved little in Rome before Benedict and the antipope Sylvester III returned. The chaos that resulted as each man represented himself as the true pope was too much, and King Henry III of Germany rode south to settle the matter. At a council at Sutri, Italy, Benedict and Sylvester were deposed, and Gregory was convinced to resign the office because his payment to Benedict could be viewed as simony. He left Italy for Germany, where he died not long after. For more about the life and pontificate of Gregory VI, see his Concise Biography. Pope Gregory VI Resources: Concise Biography of Gregory VIPopes Who Resigned Pope Gregory VI on the Web Catholic Encyclopedia: Pope Gregory VIConcise look at Gregory by Horace Mann. Pope Gregory VI in Print The links below will take you to a site where you can compare prices at booksellers across the web. More in-depth info about the book may be found by clicking on to the books page at one of the online merchants. by Richard P. McBrien by P. G. Maxwell-Stuart The PapacyChronological List of PopesMedieval ItalyWhos Who Directories: Chronological Index Geographical Index Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society

George Saunders’ “The New Mecca” The Gap between Reality...

Tasfia Kamal 11/21/13 Professor Walker Communication Skills George Saunders’ â€Å"The New Mecca†: The Gap between Reality and Conceptuality â€Å"The New Mecca† is an essay in which author George Saunders engraves different experiences he had throughout his Dubai trip. In the beginning he tells the readers that everything they are going to assume about Dubai is going to be wrong unless they see Dubai by themselves first. He†¦show more content†¦Throughout the author’s journey in Dubai, he got to meet a lot of lower class people who have been working there for years. He got to talk to them and ask them personal questions to get to know them better. He came across people who originated there years ago with hopes and dreams of improving their lifestyle. They have been working hard ever since. The author tells the readers that sometimes these employees get their passport taken away by the people they work for. They work almost twenty four hours every week since they arrived here. Although, they don’t even get paid enough. They have been treated horribly. However these people don’t tend to be bothered by this at all. They assumes that they would have worse life if they there were back in home. When the author was talking to the Kenyan security guard who works fourteen hours a day he realized that these people don’t understand that they are not being treated the way they are supposed to. The author asked a waiter about when he wants to get married and when he wants to go back to is country. The waiter replied that we will earn more money and then he’d like to go back to get married. These people are needy. So they come here with the hope of having a better life. As they don’t know their rights and they come from worse environment, they upper class people take advantage of it by treating them poorly. Then these lower class suffe ring people do not recognize this for

Feudalism - 1025 Words

Explain how the system known as â€Å"feudalism† worked in Medieval Europe. The bases of feudalism is best described as a social system in Europe throughout the Middle Ages where individuals worked and battled for upper class who gave them protection and the use of the land in return for their services (Merriam-Webster). â€Å"Feudalism† is not a medieval term and not even a translation of a medieval concept (Abels 2010; Brown 2010; Bouchard 1998). In our day and time Feudalism would be difficult and baffling in several ways, but some may feel that we would benefit from it. During this time the social class depended on how much land you owned. Royalty in your Kings and Queens was part of the upper class; the noble lords and vassals followed the†¦show more content†¦The attacks were unsuspecting on the towns and villages so that they couldn’t maintain order. All the while this was taking place the Frankish Empire was falling apart. They begin to fight among each other for the Kingdom. They became a disorder society. Life may have been not suitable for some but feudalism turned dysfunction into order during a violent time. What was its impact on the mission of the church? The Church was the absolute most predominant foundation in medieval life, its impact invading practically every part of individuals’ lives. Its religious observances often shape to the plan; its customs checked every minute in a person s life; and its lessons supported standard convictions about morals, the significance of life and existence. Church in Western Europe was recognized as the Roman Catholic Church went from the religion of the Roman Empire to the official religion and the most powerful institution of the Middle Ages. All of Europe had been converted to Christianity by the year 1000. Although this process was peaceful at times but other times it got downright ugly. The inclusion of the church in the system became a political reality. The unsettled conditions caused by the Viking and Magyar invasions forced church officials to enter into close relations with the only power able to offer them protection. Bishops and abbots thus became vassals, receiving fiefs for which they were obligated to provide the usual feudal services. TheShow MoreRelatedEssay on Feudalism446 Words   |  2 PagesFeudalism Western Europe suffered numerous hardships through the ninth and tenth centuries and this was the ultimate reason they established a new political organization which was known as feudalism. By providing honor, protection, and a sense of control, this new social system revived peace and order in Western Europe after the fall of the Carolingian Empire. Feudalism was a necessary ingredient to yield stability in during these times of calamity. 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The Essense Of Buddhism Free Essays

John Snelling has written that scientists with their scientific information have succeeded in sending space craft to distant planets or even probe to remote quarters of the planet with radio telescopes, (Snelling 7). They may investigate the mysteries of the sub atomic world with electron microscopes. But the thing that infact know least about is this great mystery that is right here with us all the time- the heart of the matter behind Buddhism. We will write a custom essay sample on The Essense Of Buddhism or any similar topic only for you Order Now For like every one they subscribe to consensus view and don’t give the matter a second thought. Thus, according to John Snelling of the London Buddhist Society, these scientists fail to see what is right under their nose, (291). Buddhist is concerned, Snelling has found, with the unravelling of this mystery. In the first sense it is necessary to see through the great delusion of ‘I’, of the so called person. Then it is a matter of finding what really is there. And how plot thickens to penetrate this mystery is to penetrate the ultimate mystery, the mystery of the heart of all things, and confront what the Christians called God, the Hindus Brahman or Atman-and it goes by other names in other religions. Buddhists, however hesitate to put a name to it or say anything or say anything at all about it. It is they maintain something that cannot be grasped by intellect or described in words. It cannot be seen directly; but that seeing brings about something truly miraculous: a total transformation, no less. The veils of delution fall away and last the world is perceived as it truly is. At the same time a deep compassion also crystallizes: a pure, self less kindliness and caring born of an understanding of the unity of all beings. Therefore, as has been established by John Snelling in his ‘The Buddhist handbook: a complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice’, (7) Buddhism is quite simple. But as, Snelling has found out simple things are always hard to fully realize, so people need all kinds of aids and support. A vast superstructure according to Snelling has therefore grown up around the basic heart core of the Buddha’s teaching: mountains of philosophical speculation, a voluminous literature, monastic codes and ethical systems, histories, cosmologies, different types of ritual and meditation practice, institutions and hierarchies. John Snelling writes of one Shuan Chin ken who wrote a preface to a text book (mumonkan) From the London Buddhist society, John Snelling (1987) established that many of those who have undertaken the study and practice of Buddhism have also taken an interest in the western psychotherapies that developed from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, the, the most famous western psychologist. As well as the Freudian psychoanalysis and its derivatives, Snelling has found that, this includes the analytical psychology of Freud great but errant student, Carl Gustav Jung, as well as subsequent developments right down to the present time, where Buddhism and western society have come together in a wonderful bond, (Snelling, 292). These theories, now regarded as Western psychotherapies arose towards the end of the 19th century and in the early part of the 20th century. This great discovery made by the pioneers of this movement was of the existence of the unconscious: an area or range of aspects of human psyche falling outside the normal range of conscious awareness. Snelling records the therapeutic aspects that interested Dr. Freud to study a lot on the nerve system of animals. Sigmund Freud, as recorded by, Snelling was to the view the unconscious as a kind of cellar containing mainly what he called ‘vises’, all those aspects of himself that a person does not wish to confront- the unacceptable desires, aggressive impulses, painful memories and many other areas of ego. Snelling has established cure of all these consisted reclaiming this exiled material from the abyss of knowing and restoring it to the province of consciousness- or in Freudian terminology: restoring it to the ego from the Idd, a process that Freud compared to reclaiming land from the sea, (Snelling, 295). If Freud’s tendency had been essentially secular, according to John Snelling then Jung’s ideas brought the new psychology into the area once regarded as the preserve of religion (293). Indeed he began to see the role of analysis not merely as directed towards curing neurotic symptoms but of assisting harmonious development, the flowering of individual potential, and ultimately towards securing a transformation that would take the individual beyond himself. John Snelling writes: â€Å"The fact that the approach to the numinous is the real therapy and inasmuch as you attain to the numinous experiences you are released from the curse of pathology†. (Snelling 253). To accord due credit to Jung, however, it must be said that many western Buddhists have found that this ideas represent useful bridge into exotic world of Eastern spirituality. Some have gone so far as to undertake Jungian analysis and have found helpful, particularly in dealing with psychological problems. According to John Snelling, Alan Watts was able to explain on this in his writing of the seven symbols of life (1936); Watt propounded the idea that Buddhism has more in common with psychotherapy than with religion as the term was then understood in the west. Psychotherapy and Buddhism are intermarried and each has its part to play in assisting in its full realization, psychotherapy in helping to develop a sound ego, Buddhism in taking the process on from there, (Snelling, 298). Religion of faith Buddha emphasized that his teachings had a practical purpose and should not be blindly clung to. He the Dharma to a raft made by a man seeking to cross a dangerous hither shore of a river, representing the conditioned world, to the peaceful further shore, representing Nibanna (M. 1. 34-5). He then rhetorically asked whether such a man on reaching the other side should lift the raft and carry it around with him there. He therefore said, Dharma is for crossing over not for retaining, that is a follower should not grasp at Buddhist ideas and practices, but use them for their intended purpose, and then let go of them when they had fully accomplished their goal. Many ordinary Buddhists, though do not have a strong attachment to Buddhism. While the Buddha was critical to blind faith, he did not deny a role for soundly based faith or trustful confidence (saddha) for to test out his teachings, person had to have at least some initial trust in them. He emphasizes a process of listening, which arouses saddha, leading to deeper saddha and deeper practice until the heart of the teachings is directly experienced. A person then becomes an Arahat, one who has replaced faith with knowledge. Even Theravada Buddhism, which often has a rather rational unemotional image, a very deep faith in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha is common. Ideally this is based on the fact that some part of Buddha’s path has been found to be uplifting, thus inspiring confidence in the rest. Many people though have a calm and joyful faith (pasada) inspired by the example of those who are well established on the path. In essence therefore, Buddhism is a religion that is based on aspects of faith. In actual sense Buddhism is a religion where faith is exercised for the purposes of perfection. We therefore accept the fact the statement of acclaim that Buddhism is a religion of faith holds. Buddhism does not demand that anyone accepts their teaching on trust. The practitioner is instead invited to try them out, to expriment with them. John Snelling writes and says there is no compulsion and it happens to find truth elsewhere or otherwise all well and good, (Snelling, 4). The essential freedom from dogma is enshrined in the Buddha’s words to the Kalama, a people who lived in the vicinity of the town of Kesaputta: † Come, Kalamas, do not be satisfied with heasay or with tradition or with legendary lore or with what has come down in your scriptures or with logical inference or with weighing liking for a view after pondering it over or with the thought ‘the monk is our teacher’ When you know in yourselves ‘these ideas are unprofitable, liable to censure, condemned by the wise, being adopted and put into effect they lead to harm and suffering ‘, then you should abandon them†¦ ( and conversely:)when you know in yourselves these things are profitable†¦ ‘ then you should practice them and abide in them. † (Snelling, 3). Philosophical foundations According to John Snelling, in his The Buddhist Handbook: A complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice Buddhism as a religion is based o philosophical foundations. He writes: â€Å"At the core of Mahayana philosophy lays the notion of emptiness: Shunyata. Buddha very much in the spirit of anata as first teaches this. It is not used to imply, not mere or sheer nothingness, but ‘emptiness of inherent existence’; that is, the absence of any kind of enduring or self –sustaining essence. There is also a sense in which it has connotations of conceptual emptiness: absence of thoughts. It could be regarded too as a non-term signifying the ineffable understanding arising within the practice of meditation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Therefore, Shunyata as used by Buddha has formed this philosophical foundation in Buddhism, although in addition to this Snelling introduces another key term tathata which according to Buddhism philosophical foundations means ‘thusness’ or ‘suchness’ which signifies Emptiness in its immanent aspect: as it appears in the world of form. The Buddha, as Snelling writes, is sometimes called the Tathagata: ‘He who is thus gone’. The Tathagata-garbha (garbha means ‘germ’) doctrine, on the other hand, proposes the notion of an imminent Absolute: the manifestation in form of a transcendental principle, (Snelling,5). Therefore it is true Buddhism has some philosophical foundations as it written by John Snelling, (Snelling, 4). In conclusion we have seen that Buddhism involves that Buddhism has evolved on the basis of some philosophical foundations and that it involves psychological, religious, some mystical experience and meditations. Unlike other religions, Buddhism holds the religious perfection in which one should not clung of practical faith but should eventually make it to knowledge. Therefore, this makes it more a practical experience. It is such aspects, according to John Snelling that drive us to believe that there is no Buddhism but only Buddhists. REFERENCES Snelling, John. The Buddhist Handbook: A complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice. London: Rider, 1987. 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Research on the Acoustic Impedance-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the effect of the material acoustic impedance on two major scenarios. Answer: Introduction The propagation of small sound pressure waves through a medium is termed as acoustics. The area has been of great interest to the scholars as attempts are made to scientifically uncover the key aspects of the propagation phenomenon. Notably, acoustic impedance is among the issues that research scientists have focused their energy to develop the concept further with the intention to explain how the phenomenon occurs and the various parameters that can affect it for a given material. In this brief study, great attempts are made to determine the methods and applications involved. Classical deterministic models are often used to mathematically draw a scenario of acoustic impedance and how it depends on the frequency. In this paper, therefore, two methods with accompanying practical applications will be elucidated; such methods as the ultrasound with applications in the spatial compounding. Now, there are two major applications alongside the methods that are currently in use. Therefore, t he aim of this paper is to uncover the fundamental principles and practice in the study of acoustic impedance. Certainly, the paper will greatly serve as a substantive material in the furtherance of acoustic impedance concept in the practical world. Methods of measuring acoustic Impedance The 2-microphone transfer function This method is implemented using an impedance tube with two microphones situated at positions whose distance apart is known. The concept is as follows: An incident wave is propagated from loudspeaker and a reflected wave result. The standing-wave phenomenon can then be used to measure various characteristics like impedance, wavelength and frequency. It should be noted that the tube is in-situ in the set up. The plane wave is made to travel in the duct and the frequency is limited by the geometric properties of the tube such as diameter and speed of sound in air. Mathematically, the upper limit frequency, according to Chalmers (2012) must be: Fu0.58Co/d.(1) The speaker will act as a source of sound wave and the incident pressure wave is denoted PR Notably, the complex sound pressure at the microphone position is given by: P1= P1(x1) + PR(x1)= P1e-jkx1 + PRejkx1(2a) P2= P1(x2) + PR(x2)= P1ejkx2 + PRe-jkx2 The microphone would then detect the signals (both the incident and reflected pressure waves). However, due to internal amplitude and phase between the microphones, the microphone interchange method can be used to minimize this mismatch (Chalmer, 2012). Finally, the transfer function of both the incident and reflecting waves between the microphones can be derived using the general equations 3(a) and 3(b): H1= P1(x2)/P1(x1)= P1e-jkx2/P1e-jkx1= ejks3(a) HR= PR(x2/PR(x1)= PRejkx2/PRejkx1= e-jks3(b) Where s=x2-x1 The reflection coefficient R can then be determined (which is actually the ratio of the complex reflected and incident pressures. Rx=x1= H12-H1/(HR- H12)(3) But note that there is normally a portion of the incident propagating wave that is not reflected but absorbed, that is given by: = 1-/R/2.(4) The surface acoustic impedance is therefore give as: Zs= Zo(1+R)/(1-R) where Zo= PoCo acoustical characteristics impedance of air Effect of frequency on the impedance The acoustical impedance is affected by the source frequency such that low frequency sources result in lower impedance intensity hence reduced impedance level. However, best performance of the set up occurs at a particular low frequency region as given by equation 1. Besides, the diameter of the tube plays a pivotal role on the frequency range allowable in the method. Higher frequency above the given limit is often constrained by the tube diameter. Wave decomposition method In the previous method, consideration was made for plane waves only hence the model is limited to certain applications. However, here the wave decomposition method can cover the oblique-incident and normal pressure waves hence applicable to higher modal order modes (Schultz, Cattafesta Sheplak, 2006). The method depicts a one-dimensional lined duct with an excitation speaker at one end and impedance boundary on the other end. There is normally a material that will be inserted at the duct-end such that during propagation, the material produces, in part, a reflective and reactive boundary hence complex transfer function results. Mathematically, dU/dx(L, t)= -k(1/c)dy/dt(L,t).(5) Where k= complex acoustic impedance X= L,U(L,t)= fluid particle displacement at x=L C= sonic wave speed in the duct (m/s) t = time variable x= spatial variable (m) L= length of the duct (m) Hence equation 2 illustrates how the impedance can be determined using the method once the experiment is performed: Re(T)+iIm(T)= Re(k) cos [w/c(x-L)+i{Im(k)Cos{w/x(x-L)-sin[w/c(x-L)/Re(k) Cos (w/cL)+i{Im(k)cos(wl/c)+sin(wl/c)}(6) The acoustic pressure of the system is proportional to the spatial derivative of the particle displacement P(x,t)= -pc2dU/dx(x,t) Application of Acoustic Impedance The turbofan engine acoustic The two-microphone transfer function method can be used in the turbofan engine to analyze the material acoustics making up the compressor and the turbine. The model first considers the system to be such that the phenomenon occurs in lined ducts with an axial flow of the sound pressure waves. There is need to know the boundary conditions at the walls and at the treatment surfaces (Malmary Carbonne, 2001). According to Malmary Carbonne (2001) the normalized acoustic impedance is given as: Zt= 1/PoCo x (P/vn) . (1) where P= acoustic pressure at a point of the surface of the liner, v = acoustic velocity at the same point, n= normal to the surface of the liner, Co=speed of sound in air and ?= air density However, a part from the layer impedance, there is cavity impedance which must also be factored in hence the total acoustic impedance from the system is given by: Zt= Z-jcot(KL) ... (2) where K= acoustic wave number, K=w/co and L= cavity depth Therefore, critical parameters that will determine the relevance of the model in the practical sense include: the dimensional property of the attenuating medium and the flow characteristics such as mach number, frequency among others which mathematically can be represented as: Z= z(e,d,?,w,/v/, M).(3) Where w= sound pulsation /v/= amplitude of the normal acoustic velocity M= Flow Mach number However, it should be noted that the above model is linearized where the frequency characteristic relates with the acoustic impedance as follows: Firstly, for a perforated pipe, according to Malmary Carbonne (2001) the impedance is given as: Z= r+jX ..(4) Where r= (8vw)0.5/?Co(1+e/d) +1/8?(kd)2 and X= w/?Co[e+8d/3(1-0.7?0.5) +(8v/w)0.5(1+e/d)] However, as pointed out earlier, this model is not sufficient in its entirety so to speak; because the real-world acoustic systems often exhibit non-linear behavior hence a further extension to the method is necessary. However, there are other more specific methods that utilize the acoustic impedance phenomenon with their underlying applications as discussed in the next paragraphs Spatial compounding More often, acoustic impedance measurements could be used in the generation of the ultrasound images but problems of occlusions may hinder the performance in situations where the material acoustic impedance is high. Unlike the other scenarios, where the mean of the impedances can be used in a straight fashion; this case requires the beam intensity to be increased so as to overcome the material impedances. This is what is termed as spatial compounding. Hence often the material acoustic impedance will have to be known from the standardized models after which the system design will take root. Nevertheless, spatial compounding ensures that the ultrasound imaging is a near excellent result while overcoming the layer impedances during propagation (Malmary Carbonne , 2001). References Dingzeyu Li, David, I, Matusik, W Changxi Zheng, C. (2016). Acoustic Voxels: Computational Optimization of Modular Acoustic Filters. Available from: https://www.cs.columbia.edu/cg/lego/acoustic-voxels-siggraph-2016-li-et-al.pdf Malmary, C Carbonne, S. (2001). Acoustic impedance measurement with grazing flow. Available from: https://perso.univ-lemans.fr/~yauregan/publi/AIAA-2001-2193.pdf Rienstra, S.W Hirschberg, A. (2017).An Introduction to Acoustics. Eindhoven University of Technology. Available from: https://www.win.tue.nl/~sjoerdr/papers/boek.pdf Wachinger, C, Shams, R Navab, N. (2008). Estimation of Acoustic Impedance from Multiple Ultrasound Images with Application to Spatial Compounding. Available from : https://campar.in.tum.de/pub/wachinger2008impedance/wachinger2008impedance.pdf Chalmers. (2012). Evaluation of impedance tube methods - A two microphone in-situ method for road surfaces and the three-microphone transfer function method for porous materials. Available from: https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/178260/178260.pdf Utsuno, H., Toshimitsu Tanaka., T Fujikaw., T. (1989). Transfer function method for measuring characteristic impedance and propagation constant of porous materials. Available from: https://spectronics.net/resources/Technical%20Papers/Bulk%20Properties_1.pdf Yunseon, R. (no year). The Acoustic Impedance Measurement System using two microphones. Available from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.612.6612rep=rep1type=pdf Vorlander, M. (2013). Acoustic Measurements. Available from: file:///C:/Users/Otieno/Downloads/9783540240525-c1.pdf Pcfarina. (2006). Acoustic Impedance Measurements. Available from: https://pcfarina.eng.unipr.it/Public/Standing-Wave/ebook_6_impedance.pdf Schultz,T., Cattafesta,L.N Sheplak, M. (2006). Modal decomposition method for acoustic impedance testing in square ducts. Available from: https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.2360423 Hull, J.A. (1992). A Comparison of Acoustic Impedance Measurement Techniques. Submarine Sonar Department. Available from: https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a255566.pdf Pcfarina. 2006. Acoustic Impedance Measurements. Available from: https://pcfarina.eng.unipr.it/Public/Standing-Wave/ebook_6_impedance.pdf Spatial and Frequency Compounding in Application to Attenuation Estimation in Tissue Ziemowit KLIMONDA, Jerzy LITNIEWSKI, Piotr KARWAT, Andrzej NOWICKI Institute of Fundamental Technological Research Polish Academy of Science. Available from: https://www.ippt.pan.pl/Repository/o2659.pdf Thesis. Chapter 3 -Basic Acoustic Modeling. Available from: https://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-10232000-10320002/unrestricted/Chap3.pdf Williams, L Wilkins. 2009. Acoustic Impedance. Walters Kluwer Health. Available from: https://www4.uwsp.edu/physastr/kmenning/Phys115/Link5-09_acoustic_impedance.pdf Wolkesson, M. 2013. Evaluation of impedance tube methods - A two microphone in-situ method for road surfaces and the three microphone transfer function method for porous materials Masters Thesis in the Masters programme in Sound and Vibration. Chalmer University of Technology. Available from: https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/178260/178260.pdf